biotransformation

biotransformation /bio·trans·for·ma·tion/ (-trans″for-ma´shun) the series of chemical alterations of a compound (e.g., a drug) occurring within the body, as by enzymatic activity.

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bi·o·trans·for·ma·tion (b-trnsfr-mshn)

n.

Chemical alteration of a substance, especially of a drug, within the body, as by the action of enzymes. Also called biodegradation.

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biotransformation

[-trans′fôrmā′shən]

Etymology: Gk, bios + L, trans, across, formare, to form

the chemical changes a substance undergoes in the body, such as by the action of enzymes. See also metabolic.

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biotransformation,

n the chemical and physical changes produced in drugs after they enter the body (e.g., hydrolysis, conjugation).

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biotransformation

the series of chemical alterations of a compound (e.g. a drug) occurring within the body, as by enzymatic activity. The metabolism of a drug may produce products that have different effects to those of the parent drug. This biotransformation may differ markedly between animal species and affect the dose rate to be used, or the usefulness of the drug.

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neonatal biotransformation

is marked by a deficiency of some enzymes necessary for the biotransformation of drugs.

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therapeutic drug monitoring

Clinical pharmacology The regular measurement of serum levels of drugs requiring close 'titration' of doses in order to ensure that there are sufficient levels in the blood to be therapeutically effective, while avoiding potentially toxic excess; drug concentration in vivo is a function of multiple factors Common TDM drugs Carbamazepine, digoxin, gentamycin, procainamide, phenobarbital, phenytoin, theophylline, tobramycin, valproic acid, vancomycin

Therapeutic drug levels in vivo–factors involved

Patient compliance  Ingestion of drug in the doses prescribed

Bioavailability Access to circulation, interaction with cognate receptor(s); ionized and 'free', or bound to a carrier molecule, often albumin

Pharmacokinetics Drug equilibrium requires 4-6 half-lives of drug clearance (a period of time for¹/₂ of the drug to 'clear', either through metabolism or excretion, multiplied by 4-6); the drug is affected by

• Interaction with foods or other drugs at the site of absorption, eg tetracycline binding to cations or chelation with binding resins, eg bile acid-binding cholestyramine that also sequesters warfarin, thyroxine and digitoxin or interactions of various drugs with each other, eg digitalis with quinidine resulting in a 3-fold ↓ in digitalis clearance

• Absorption may be changed by GI hypermotility or large molecule size

• Lipid solubility, which affects the volume of distribution; highly lipid-soluble substances have high affinity for adipose tissue and a low tendency to remain in the vascular compartment, see Volume of distribution

• Biotransformation, with 'first pass' elimination by hepatic metabolism, in which polar groups are introduced into relatively insoluble molecules by oxidation, reduction or hydrolysis; for elimination, lipid-soluble drugs require the 'solubility' steps of glucuronidation or sulfatation in the liver; water-soluble molecules are eliminated directly via the kidneys, weak acidic drugs are eliminated by active tubular secretion that may be altered by therapy with methotrexate, penicillin, probenecid, salicylates, phenylbutazone and thiazide diuretics

First order kinetics Drug elimination is proportional to its concentration

Zero order kinetics Drug elimination is independent of the drug's concentration

Physiological factors

• Age Lower doses are required in both infants and the elderly, in the former because the metabolic machinery is not fully operational, in the latter because the machinery is decaying, with ↓ cardiac and renal function, enzyme activity, density of receptors on the cell surfaces and ↓ albumin, the major drug transporting molecule

• Enzyme induction, which is involved in a drug's metabolism may reduce the drug's activity; enzyme-inducing drugs include barbiturates, carbamazepine, glutethimide, phenytoin, primidone, rifampicin

• Enzyme inhibition, which is involved in drug metabolism, resulting in ↑ drug activity, prolonging the action of various drugs, including chloramphenicol, cimetidine, disulfiram (Antabuse), isoniazid, methyldopa, metronidazole, phenylbutazone and sulfonamides

Genetic factors play an as yet poorly defined role in therapeutic drug monitoring, as is the case of the poor ability of some racial groups to acetylate drugs

Concomitant disease, ie whether there are underlying conditions that may affect drug distribution or metabolism, eg renal disease with ↓ clearance and ↑ drug levels, or hepatic disease, in which there is ↓ albumin production and ↓ enzyme activity resulting in a functional ↑ in drug levels, due to ↓ availability of drug-carrying proteins