Despite some limitations of the study, namely the observational design and the possible effects of
information bias, and the need for randomized clinical studies, the investigators added: "The accumulating evidence suggests that we must limit NSAID use to the absolute minimum in patients with established cardiovascular disease.
His topics include causality and comparative studies, varieties of bias, confounding, intermediate causal factors,
information bias, and contending with bias.
How probable is
information bias (differences in outcome measurement for exposed and unexposed subjects or differences in exposure measurement for subjects with and without the outcome)?